Like other Proof-of-Stake (PoS) networks, Ethereum relies on staking to achieve consensus on block production, validation, and the state of the chain. Staking ensures the Ethereum blockchain runs smoothly and maintains its integrity by economically incentivizing key network participants, known as validators, to act honestly and in the best interests of the network.
Staking involves committing 32 ETH to activate validator software, and thereby support the network’s security. This commitment allows the validator to participate in Ethereum’s consensus mechanism by proposing new blocks and attesting to the validity of blocks proposed by other validators. In return for their contributions, validators receive rewards. This reward system is integral to Ethereum’s PoS mechanism, ensuring the network is secure, decentralized, and continuously validated by its community.
This detailed guide explores the nuances of Ethereum validator staking rewards, offering a deep dive into this vital aspect of the Ethereum protocol.
Staking 101
Staking is a core mechanism that keeps the Ethereum blockchain both secure and decentralized. In essence, staking on Ethereum involves running software that plays a crucial part in maintaining the network’s ledger, a process supported by the collective effort of participants worldwide. Each participant, or validator, contributes by depositing 32 ETH as their stake. This stake acts as both a pledge of the validator’s sincerity in maintaining the network’s integrity and as a safeguard, allowing the Ethereum protocol to impose financial penalties on those who act negligently or maliciously.
In practical terms, becoming a validator starts with depositing 32 ETH to activate the validator software, thereby integrating a new node into the Ethereum network. Validators are at the forefront of ensuring consensus within the network, tasked with proposing new blocks or verifying the legitimacy of those proposed by their peers. As the network grows with the addition of more honest validators, Ethereum’s economic security strengthens, making any potential attack both difficult and costly.
Validators earn financial rewards for carrying out their assigned duties: proposing and validating blocks. As we’ll explain in more detail later, these rewards come from new ETH issuance, priority fees from transactions, and maximal extractable value (MEV).
For a more detailed look into staking and the different types of staking, read here.
The Role of Validators on Ethereum
As discussed above, validators are integral to the health and functionality of a PoS system, tasked with responsibilities crucial for maintaining the network’s integrity. Let’s discuss their role in more detail.
Block Proposal
A key role of validators on the Ethereum network is to propose new blocks of transactions for inclusion in the Ethereum blockchain. This process involves executing each transaction to ensure its validity and adherence to the protocol’s consensus rules.
Every 12 seconds, a validator is selected at random to propose a new block. They compile the transactions they have validated into a block and propose it for inclusion in the blockchain. Proposers are selected randomly because this unpredictability ensures both security and fairness. Ethereum’s in-protocol randomness is provided by a RANDAO mechanism. Put simply, the RANDAO mechanism can be thought of as a random number generator. When a validator is selected to propose a block, it mixes in a random contribution to the current RANDAO value, and that contribution is what’s used to generate a new random number.
Once a validator proposes a block, it is not immediately added to the blockchain. It must first be validated and attested to by other validators, a crucial step that ensures the integrity of the block and enables the proposer to receive their rewards. Being selected as a proposer is a privileged and desirable position for a validator, since the validator who proposes a block is eligible to receive a much larger reward (which includes priority fees and MEV) than those who simply attest to the block’s correctness.
Block Attestations
Arguably, the primary role that validators play in maintaining the integrity of the network is verifying that a block proposed by a fellow validator is valid. This is known as block attestation, and each validator is expected to do this at least once per epoch (32 slots).
For a block to be permanently included in the Ethereum blockchain, it needs to be attested to by two-thirds of the network’s validators. This collective agreement among validators enables blocks to achieve canonical finality, reinforcing the network’s robust consensus mechanism. Through block attestations, validators contribute to achieving network consensus but also earn rewards in the network’s token, which is ETH in the case of Ethereum.
Sync Committees
Sync committees are an essential part of the PoS framework. Every 256 epochs, equivalent to 27.3 hours, a group of 512 validators are chosen to collaborate and authenticate blockchain snapshots. This allows new nodes or ones that have been offline, to update (or sync) without individually verifying each transaction. Validators are rarely selected to be part of a sync committee – approximately every 37 months. During the sync committee term, rewards are significantly higher, with validators receiving rewards for every slot in which they have fulfilled their responsibilities. Read here for more on sync committee rewards.
The Importance of Validator Diversity
Since each validator’s independent validation of Ethereum transactions is crucial to maintaining the network’s security, their diversity becomes a key aspect of the network’s health.
Diversity among validators – spanning operators, client software, geographical regions, and hosting solutions – is vital for the network’s security. A sufficiently diverse set of validators minimizes the risks of centralized control, lessens the impact of client bugs on the network’s health, and mitigates security threats.
Where Validator Staking Rewards Come From
The rewards one can earn from staking are one of the key motivations for validators to participate in the staking process and thus provide security to the network. Validator rewards aren’t dependent on the actions of a specialized manager, such as funds entrusted to a hedge fund or other money managers who enjoy discretion over how the funds are invested to generate a reward. Rather, these rewards are strictly governed by the rules of the open-source Ethereum protocol specification.
Ethereum validator rewards originate from two places - the network’s Consensus Layer (CL) and the Execution Layer (EL).
The CL is where validators attest to blocks and effectively vote on the head of the Ethereum blockchain. CL rewards are net new ETH issuance paid by the Ethereum protocol to validators who diligently and honestly perform the duties expected of them. These CL rewards accrue to a validator’s 32 ETH balance.
The EL is where Ethereum transactions are processed and broadcast to the rest of the network. EL rewards are earned each block by the validator who is fortunate enough to be selected as that block’s proposer. When a validator proposes a valid block, they earn a portion of the gas fees paid by each user whose transaction was included in the block, and typically some MEV. These EL rewards accrue to an Ethereum address specified by the validator and are accessible immediately. For a more detailed explanation of how rewards are generated, please see this guide from the Ethereum Foundation.
While a validator’s CL and EL rewards are generated in and initially accrue to different places, they are ultimately all made available to the staker on the EL via Ethereum’s partial withdrawal mechanism, which periodically sweeps ETH in excess of 32 ETH from a validator’s balance on the CL to the EL. Read more on Ethereum’s withdrawal process here.
What Factors Influence Rewards?
The amount of rewards that validators earn can fluctuate according to factors both inside and outside of an individual validator’s control. The protocol’s reward mechanism is transparent, independently verifiable, and not reliant on any counterparty. You can accurately expect what the network will pay for security, and you have an unequivocal real-time record of what the network pays due to the directly viewable public ledger.
Some of the most important factors that influence a validator’s reward rate are listed below:
Validator uptime and performance: Rewards are proportional to validator uptime, meaning that a validator that’s always kept online and performing its validator duties will earn maximal rewards. On the other hand, validators who go offline or fail to perform the duties expected of them incur a small penalty. Beyond these minor offenses, there are some behaviors that break specific protocol rules and could constitute an attack on the Ethereum network. Validators that exhibit these behaviors are subject to a more severe punishment known as “slashing”, which should be avoided at all costs.
Number of active validators: To ensure that Ethereum attracts a sufficient amount of cryptoeconomic security (in the form of staked ETH), the protocol adjusts its rate of new ETH issuance depending on how many active validators there are on the network. In short, rewards increase (on a per validator basis) as the number of active Ethereum validators decreases. The opposite is also true.
Block proposals and MEV: Ethereum introduces elements of randomness in selecting validators for block proposals, ensuring fairness and security. This is for good reason, as being selected as a block proposer means earning the priority fees from all transactions included in the block. Additionally, MEV captured during block proposals can supplement validators’ earnings, adding an extra layer to the rewards schema.
This carefully calibrated system of rewards and penalties enforces a high standard of participation within the Ethereum network. By incentivizing validators to remain online, perform efficiently, and adhere to protocol rules, Ethereum ensures its blockchain remains secure, trustworthy, and decentralized – principles that lie at the heart of its design and future vision.